The
theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning
is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior
are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli)
that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence
such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math
problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern
is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to
respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning
relative to previous forms of behaviorism (e.g., Thorndike,
Hull) is that the organism can emit
responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external
stimulus.
Reinforcement
is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is
anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be
verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment
or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers
-- any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of
a response when it is withdrawn (different from adversive
stimuli -- punishment -- which result in reduced responses).
A great deal of attention was given to schedules of reinforcement
(e.g. interval versus ratio) and their effects on establishing
and maintaining behavior.
One
of the distinctive aspects of Skinner's theory is that it
attempted to provide behavioral explanations for a broad range
of cognitive phenomena. For example, Skinner explained drive
(motivation) in terms of deprivation and reinforcement schedules.
Skinner (1957) tried to account for verbal learning and language
within the operant conditioning paradigm, although this effort
was strongly rejected by linguists and psycholinguists. Skinner
(1971) deals with the issue of free will and social control.
Scope/Application
Operant
conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings
(i.e., behavior modification) as well as teaching (i.e., classroom
management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed
instruction). Parenthetically, it should be noted that Skinner
rejected the idea of theories of learning (see Skinner, 1950).
Example
By
way of example, consider the implications of reinforcement
theory as applied to the development of programmed instruction
(Markle, 1969; Skinner, 1968)
1.
Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer
(response) frames which expose the student to the subject
in gradual steps
2.
Require that the learner make a response for every frame and
receive immediate feedback
3.
Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response
is always correct and hence a positive reinforcement
4.
Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with
secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good
grades.
Principles
1.
Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent
reinforcement is particularly effective
2.
Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses
can be reinforced ("shaping")
3.
Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus
generalization") producing secondary conditioning
References
Markle,
S. (1969). Good Frames and Bad (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
Skinner,
B.F. (1950). Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological
Review, 57(4), 193-216.
Skinner,
B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan.
Skinner,
B.F. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching.
Harvard Educational Review, 24(2), 86-97.
Skinner,
B.F. (1957). Verbal Learning. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Skinner,
B.F. (1968). The Technology of Teaching. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Skinner,
B.F. (1971). Beyond Freedom and Dignity. New York: Knopf.
