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Human Resource Management (HRM) is the strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organization's most valued assets - the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the business.[1] The terms "human resource management" and "human resources" (HR) have largely replaced the term "personnel management" as a description of the processes involved in managing people in organizations.[2]
Human resource management is both an academic theory and a business practice that addresses the theoretical and practical techniques of managing a workforce. Synonyms include personnel administration, personnel management, manpower management,[3] and industrial management[4], but these traditional expressions are becoming less common for the theoretical discipline. Sometimes even industrial relations and employee relations are confusingly listed as synonyms,[5] although these normally refer to the relationship between management and workers and the behavior of workers in companies.
The theoretical discipline is based primarily on the assumption that employees are individuals with varying goals and needs, and as such should not be thought of as basic business resources, such as trucks and filing cabinets. The field takes a positive view of workers, assuming that virtually all wish to contribute to the enterprise productively, and that the main obstacles to their endeavors are lack of knowledge, insufficient training, and failures of process.
HRM is seen by practitioners in the field as a more innovative view of workplace management than the traditional approach. Its techniques force the managers of an enterprise to express their goals with specificity so that they can be understood and undertaken by the workforce, and to provide the resources needed for them to successfully accomplish their assignments. As such, HRM techniques, when properly practiced, are expressive of the goals and operating practices of the enterprise overall. HRM is also seen by many to have a key role in risk reduction within organistions.[6]
Synonyms such as personnel management are often used in a more restricted sense to describe activities that are necessary in the recruiting of a workforce, providing its members with payroll and benefits, and administrating their work-life needs.
This course deals with the issues raised by cross-national differences in HRM styles. Specifically, it identifies a number of themes: the meaning of globalization and the extent to which it is a novel phenomenon; the challenges to national traditions; the way in which many key issues within international HRM are contested; and the extent to which change in national systems is evident.
Theory of Constraints (TOC) is an overall management philosophy introduced by Dr. Eliyahu M. Goldratt in his 1984 book titled The Goal, that is geared to help organizations continually achieve their goal.[1] The title comes from the contention that any manageable system is limited in achieving more of its goal by a very small number of constraints, and that there is always at least one constraint. The TOC process seeks to identify the constraint and restructure the rest of the organization around it, through the use of the Five Focusing Steps.
The economic value of a good or service has puzzled economists since the beginning of the discipline. First, economists tried to estimate the value of a good to an individual alone, and extend that definition to goods which can be exchanged. From this analysis came the concepts value in use and value in exchange.
Wealth maximization predicts that a person will choose to obtain the good or service in the place where it is cheapest, where the amount given up is the least.
Value is linked to price through the mechanism of exchange. When an economist observes an exchange, two important value functions are revealed: those of the buyer and seller. Just as the buyer reveals what he is willing to pay for a certain amount of a good, so too does the seller reveal what it costs him to give up the good.
Additional information about value is obtained by the rate at which transactions occur, telling observers the extent to which the purchase of the good has value over time.
Said another way, value is how much a desired object or condition is worth relative to other objects or conditions. Economic values are expressed as "how much" of one desirable condition or commodity will, or would be given up in exchange for some other desired condition or commodity. Among the competing schools of economic theory there are differing metrics for value assessment and the metrics are the subject of a "Theory of Value." Value theories are a large part of the differences and disagreements between the various schools of economic theory.
Value Stream (Flow): Linking HR Objectives to Business Initiatives
According to Jamier L. Scott. (2002),[1] “Customer service is a series of activities designed to enhance the level of customer satisfaction – that is, the feeling that a product or service has met the customer expectation."
Its importance varies by product, industry and customer; defective or broken merchandise can be exchanged, often only with a receipt and within a specified time frame. Retail stores will often have a desk or counter devoted to dealing with returns, exchanges and complaints, or will perform related functions at the point of sale.
Customer service may be provided by a person (e.g., sales and service representative), or by automated means called self-service. Examples of self service are Internet sites. However, In the Internet era, a challenge has been to maintain and/or enhance the personal experience while making use of the efficiencies of online commerce. Writing in Fast Company, entrepreneur and customer systems innovator Micah Solomon has made the point that "Online customers are literally invisible to you (and you to them), so it's easy to shortchange them emotionally. But this lack of visual and tactile presence makes it even more crucial to create a sense of personal, human-to-human connection in the online arena."[2]
Customer service is normally an integral part of a company’s customer value proposition. In their book Rules to Break and Laws to Follow, Don Peppers and Martha Rogers, Ph.D. write that "customers have memories. They will remember you, whether you remember them or not." Further, "customer trust can be destroyed at once by a major service problem, or it can be undermined one day at a time, with a thousand small demonstrations of incompetence."[3]
From the point of view of an overall sales process engineering effort, customer service plays an important role in an organization's ability to generate income and revenue.[4] From that perspective, customer service should be included as part of an overall approach to systematic improvement.
Some have argued[5] that the quality and level of customer service has decreased in recent years, and that this can be attributed to a lack of support or understanding at the executive and middle management levels of a corporation and/or a customer service policy. To address this argument, many organizations have employed a variety of methods to improve their customer satisfaction levels, and other KPIs.
Measuring the effectiveness of the organizational strategy, it's extremely important to conduct a SWOT analysis to figure out the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (both internal and external) of the entity in business. This may require taking certain precautionary measures or even changing the entire strategy.
In corporate strategy, Johnson, Scholes and Whittington present a model in which strategic options are evaluated against three key success criteria:[3]
Suitability (would it work?)
Feasibility (can it be made to work?)
Acceptability (will they work it?)
Suitability
Suitability deals with the overall rationale of the strategy. The key point to consider is whether the strategy would address the key strategic issues underlined by the organisation's strategic position.
Feasibility is concerned with whether the resources required to implement the strategy are available, can be developed or obtained. Resources include funding, people, time and information.
Tools that can be used to evaluate feasibility include:
Acceptability is concerned with the expectations of the identified stakeholders (mainly shareholders, employees and customers) with the expected performance outcomes, which can be return, risk and stakeholder reactions.
Return deals with the benefits expected by the stakeholders (financial and non-financial). For example, shareholders would expect the increase of their wealth, employees would expect improvement in their careers and customers would expect better value for money.
Risk deals with the probability and consequences of failure of a strategy (financial and non-financial).
Stakeholder reactions deals with anticipating the likely reaction of stakeholders. Shareholders could oppose the issuing of new shares, employees and unions could oppose outsourcing for fear of losing their jobs, customers could have concerns over a merger with regards to quality and support.
Tools that can be used to evaluate acceptability include:
A continuous improvement process (CIP or CI) is an ongoing effort to improve products, services, or processes. These efforts can seek "incremental" improvement over time or "breakthrough" improvement all at once.[1] Delivery (customer valued) processes are constantly evaluated and improved in the light of their efficiency, effectiveness and flexibility.
Continuous Improvement: Analyzing and Evaluating HR Processes
Some see it as a meta-process for most management systems (Business Process Management, Quality Management, Project Management). Deming saw it as part of the 'system' whereby feedback from the process and customer were evaluated against organisational goals. The fact that it can be called a management process does not mean that it needs to be executed by 'management' merely that it makes decisions about the implementation of the delivery process and the design of the delivery process itself.
Some successful implementations use the approach known as Kaizen (the translation of kai (“change”) zen (“good”) is “improvement”). This method became famous by the book of Masaaki Imai “Kaizen: The Key to Japan's Competitive Success.”
The core principle of CIP is the (self) reflection of processes. (Feedback)
The purpose of CIP is the identification, reduction, and elimination of suboptimal processes. (Efficiency)
The emphasis of CIP is on incremental, continuous steps rather than giant leaps. (Evolution)
Key features of Kaizen:
Improvements are based on many, small changes rather than the radical changes that might arise from Research and Development
As the ideas come from the workers themselves, they are less likely to be radically different, and therefore easier to implement
Small improvements are less likely to require major capital investment than major process changes
The ideas come from the talents of the existing workforce, as opposed to using R&D, consultants or equipment – any of which could be very expensive
All employees should continually be seeking ways to improve their own performance
It helps encourage workers to take ownership for their work, and can help reinforce team working, thereby improving worker motivation
The elements above are the more tactical elements of CIP. The more strategic elements include deciding how to increase the value of the delivery process output to the customer (Effectiveness) and how much flexibility is valuable in the process to meet changing needs.[2][3]
The aims of work design to improved job satisfaction, to improved through-put, to improved quality and to reduced employee problems, e.g., grievances, absenteeism.
The Job, not the person An important concept of Job Analysis is that the analysis is conducted of the Job, not the person. While Job Analysis data may be collected from incumbents through interviews or questionnaires, the product of the analysis is a description or specifications of the job, not a description of the person.
Purpose of Job Analysis
The purpose of Job Analysis is to establish and document the 'job relatedness' of employment procedures such as training, selection, compensation, and performance appraisal.
Determining Training Needs
Job Analysis can be used in training/"needs assessment" to identify or develop:
training content
assessment tests to measure effectiveness of training
equipment to be used in delivering the training
methods of training (i.e., small group, computer-based, video, classroom...)
Compensation
Job Analysis can be used in compensation to identify or determine:
skill levels
compensable job factors
work environment (e.g., hazards; attention; physical effort)
responsibilities (e.g., fiscal; supervisory)
required level of education (indirectly related to salary level)
Selection Procedures
Job Analysis can be used in selection procedures to identify or develop:
job duties that should be included in advertisements of vacant positions;
appropriate salary level for the position to help determine what salary should be offered to a candidate;
minimum requirements (education and/or experience) for screening applicants;
interview questions;
selection tests/instruments (e.g., written tests; oral tests; job simulations);
applicant appraisal/evaluation forms;
orientation materials for applicants/new hires
Performance Review
Job Analysis can be used in performance review to identify or develop:
A workflow consists of a sequence of connected steps. It is a depiction of a sequence of operations, declared as work of a person, a group of persons,[1] an organization of staff, or one or more simple or complex mechanisms. Workflow may be seen as any abstraction of real work, segregated in workshare, work split or other types of ordering. For control purposes, workflow may be a view on real work under a chosen aspect,[2] thus serving as a virtual representation of actual work. The flow being described often refers to a document that is being transferred from one step to another.
A workflow is a model to represent real work for further assessment, e.g., for describing a reliably repeatable sequence of operations. More abstractly, a workflow is a pattern of activity enabled by a systematic organization of resources, defined roles and mass, energy and information flows, into a work process that can be documented and learned.[3][4] Workflows are designed to achieve processing intents of some sort, such as physical transformation, service provision, or information processing.
Workflow concepts are closely related to other concepts used to describe organizational structure, such as silos, functions, teams, projects, policies and hierarchies. Workflows may be viewed as one primitive building block of organizations. The relationships among these concepts are described later in this entry.
The term workflow is used in computer programming to capture and develop human-to-machine interaction.
Equal
opportunity is a term which has differing definitions
and there is no consensus as to the precise meaning.[1]
Some use it as a descriptive term for an approach intended
to provide a certain social
environment in which people are not excluded from the
activities of society, such as education, employment,
or health
care, on the basis of immutable traits. Equal opportunity practices include measures taken
by organizations to ensure fairness in the employment process.
A basic definition of equality is the idea of equal treatment
and respect.
In job advertisements and descriptions, the fact that the
employer is an equal opportunity employer is sometimes indicated
by the abbreviations EOE or MFDV which stands for Minority,
Female, Disabled, Veteran.
The Disability Discrimination Act in the UK prohibits discrimination against disabled people in employment. The legislation protects both existing and prospective employees.
Less favourable treatment can result in two types of unlawful discrimination:
Direct discrimination, which cannot be justified
Unjustifiable less favourable treatment for a reason relating to a person's disability
It is also unlawful for an employer to fail to make reasonable adjustments to both the physical environment and to policies, practices or criteria, which place the disabled person at a substantial disadvantage.
If a disabled candidate wishes to apply but the online application process is inaccessible, the organisation may be in breach of the DDA, unless they make a reasonable adjustment to their practice of recruiting online that enables the candidate to apply by some other method.
It would be simpler and better practice to design the e-recruitment process to be accessible given the relative ease and low cost of doing so.
When using e-recruitment you will need to ensure:
You have made reasonable adjustments for disabled applicants at every stage of the process, including short-listing, online evaluation and interview
You have not treated an applicant less favourably on grounds of their disability (e.g. by rejecting their application because of employment gaps related to their disability)
You have not published, or instructed others to publish, discriminatory adverts
Any suppliers and partners, acting as your agents, have not discriminated against disabled people
The "business case for diversity", theorizes that in a global marketplace, a company that employs a diverse workforce (both men and women, people of many generations, people from ethnically and racially diverse backgrounds etc.) is better able to understand the demographics of the marketplace it serves and is thus better equipped to thrive in that marketplace than a company that has a more limited range of employee demographics.
An additional corollary suggests that a company that supports the diversity of its workforce can also improve employee satisfaction, productivity and retention. This portion of the business case, often referred to as inclusion, relates to how an organization utilizes its various relevant diversities. If a workforce is diverse, but the employer takes little or no advantage of that breadth of that experience, then it cannot monetize whatever benefits background diversity might offer.
In most cases, US employers are prohibited by federal and state laws from giving race or ethnicity any consideration in hiring or assigning employees.[citation needed] However, the US Supreme Court has upheld the use of limited preferences based on race, ethnicity, and sex, when there is a “manifest imbalance” in a “traditionally segregated job category.”[1][2]
Recruitment refers to the process of attracting, screening, and selecting qualified people for a job at an organization or firm. For some components of the recruitment process, mid- and large-size organizations often retain professional recruiters or outsource some of the process to recruitment agencies.
The recruitment industry has five main types of agencies: employment agencies, recruitment websites and job search engines, "headhunters" for executive and professional recruitment, niche agencies which specialize in a particular area of staffing, or employer branding strategy and in-house recruitment. The stages in recruitment include sourcing candidates by advertising or other methods, and screening and selecting potential candidates using tests or interviews.
Provide the opportunity for organizational diagnosis and
development.
Facilitate communication between employee and administraton
Validate selection techniques and human resource policies
to meet federal Equal
Employment Opportunity requirements.
A common approach to assessing performance is to use a numerical
or scalar rating system whereby managers are asked to score an individual
against a number of objectives/attributes.
In some companies, employees receive assessments from their manager,
peers, subordinates and customers while also performing a self assessment. This is known as
360° appraisal.
The
most popular methods that are being used as performance
appraisal process are:
Trait based systems, which rely on factors such as integrity and conscientiousness,
are also commonly used by businesses. The scientific literature
on the subject provides evidence that assessing employees
on factors such as these should be avoided. The reasons
for this are two-fold:
1) Because trait based systems are by definition based on personality
traits, they make it difficult for a manager to provide
feedback that can cause positive change in employee performance.
This is caused by the fact that personality dimensions are for the most part static,
and while an employee can change a specific behavior they cannot change their personality.
For example, a person who lacks integrity may stop lying
to a manager because they have been caught, but they still
have low integrity and are likely to lie again when the
threat of being caught is gone.
2) Trait based systems, because they are vague, are more
easily influenced by office
politics, causing them to be less reliable as a source
of information on an employee's true performance. The vagueness
of these instruments allows managers to fill them out based
on who they want to/feel should get a raise, rather than
basing scores on specific behaviors employees should/should
not be engaging in. These systems are also more likely to
leave a company open to discrimination claims because a manager can make biased decisions without having to back them up with specific behavioral
information.
In the PTF Report it was claimed that “although annual
Reports by ministries and departments are obligatory, they
are hardly ever prepared and submitted to government, and
where they, they are scanty and hardly confirms with any
standards, either in terms of contents or format. The recommendation
was that there should be target setting by ministries where
concrete and measurable achievement can be inferred (PTF
Report Section 10 Sub10.1).
Performance
management is a forward looking process
for setting goals and regularly checking progress
toward achieving those goals. It is a continual feedback
process whereby the observed outputs are measured
and compared with the desired goals. Any discrepancy
or gap is then fed back into changing the inputs of
the process, so as to achieve the desired goals. The
feedback process involves communicating the required
change and promptly taking action to effect the desired
change. This helps the system or organization being
managed to achieve the required goal or the strategic
plan. Performance management has a wide variety
of applications such as employee performance, software
performance, business or corporate performance
and so on.[1]
A
key aspect of performance management is Performance
measurement. Whatever the process being driven
with performance management, clear and concise measures
are required in order to properly define the desired
goals. Most performance management systems fail to
achieve the desired goals of the process owner or
project sponsor because goal measurement is ambiguous,
not specific enough, poorly communicated or because
results cannot be measured effectively.
Performance
management is often confused with Performance
appraisal, the latter only forming the final part
of the performance management cycle. In other words,
performance appraisal is a backwards looking process
and a Lagging
indicator of financial performance, only measuring
what happened in the past. However performance management
is a forward looking process and a Leading
indicator of financial performance because it
drives a system or organisatisation towards a desired
future goal.
The
term training refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills,
and competencies as a result of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge that relate to specific
useful competencies. It forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at institutes
of technology (also known as technical colleges or polytechnics).
In addition to the basic training required for a trade, occupation or profession,
observers of the labor-market recognize today the need to
continue training beyond initial qualifications: to maintain,
upgrade and update skills throughout working
life. People within many professions and occupations
may refer to this sort of training as professional
development.
Some commentators use a similar term for workplace learning
to improve performance: training
and development. One can generally categorize such training
as on-the-job or off-the-job:
On-the-job training takes place in a normal working
situation, using the actual tools,
equipment, documents or materials that trainees will
use when fully trained. On-the-job training has a general
reputation as most effective for vocational work.
Off-the-job training takes place away from normal work
situations — implying that the employee does not
count as a directly productive worker while such training
takes place. Off-the-job training has the advantage that
it allows people to get away from work and concentrate
more thoroughly on the training itself. This type of training
has proven more effective[citation needed] in inculcating
concepts and ideas.
Training differs from exercise in that people may dabble
in exercise as an occasional activity for fun. Training has specific
goals of improving one's capability, capacity,
and performance
" ... the total constellation of psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economic, and chance factors that combine to influence the nature and significance of work in the total lifespan of any given individual." [1]
"... the lifelong psychological and behavioral processes as well as contextual influences shaping one’s career over the life span. As such, career development involves the person’s creation of a career pattern, decision-making style, integration of life roles, values expression, and life-role self concepts." [2]
A salary is a form of periodic payment from an employer to an employee, which may be specified in an employment contract. It is contrasted with piece wages, where each job, hour or other unit is paid separately, rather than on a periodic basis.
From the point of a business, salary can also be viewed as the cost of acquiring human resources for running operations, and is then termed personnel expense or salary expense. In accounting, salaries are recorded in payroll accounts.
Performance management (PM) includes activities to ensure that goals are consistently being met in an effective and efficient manner. Performance management can focus on the performance of an organization, a department, employee, or even the processes to build a product or service, as well as many other areas.
Performance management as referenced on this page is a broad term coined by Dr. Aubrey Daniels in the late 1970s to describe a technology (i.e. science imbedded in applications methods) for managing both behavior and results, two critical elements of what is known as performance.[1]
Employee benefits and (especially in British English) benefits in kind (also called fringe benefits, perquisites, perqs or perks) are various non-wage compensations provided to employees in addition to their normal wages or salaries.[1] Where an employee exchanges (cash) wages for some other form of benefit, this is generally referred to as a 'salary sacrifice' arrangement. In most countries, most kinds of employee benefits are taxable to at least some degree.
The purpose of the benefits is to increase the economic security of employees.
The term perqs or perks is often used colloquially to refer to those benefits of a more discretionary nature. Often, perks are given to employees who are doing notably well and/or have seniority. Common perks are take-home vehicles, hotel stays, free refreshments, leisure activities on work time (golf, etc.), stationery, allowances for lunch, and—when multiple choices exist—first choice of such things as job assignments and vacation scheduling. They may also be given first chance at job promotions when vacancies exist.
In this part we examine the mechanisms by which organizations and workers communicate and resolve conflict within the employment relationship. Why 'employee' rather than 'industrial' relations? The latter has acquired a negative connotation, associated with conflict between trade unions and employers and conveys a picture of acrimonious strikes and lock-outs (Blyton and Turnbull, 1994: 7). 'Employee relations' avoids such preconceptions and also serves to widen the topic to encompass flexible and cooperative relationships between individuals and organizations. As with much of the terminology associated with HRM, the newer term is broader in perspective and indicates a more proactive approach.
We address a number of specific issues:
What is the historical and current status of trade unionism?
How do different cultural and legislative contexts affect the practice of employee relations?
What formal and informal mechanisms are used for individual and collective workplace bargaining?
How does negotiation take place?
What is the role of arbitration?
How is 'employee involvement' defined and implemented?
Why are health and safety matters often neglected in comparison to other organizational priorities?
A trade union (British English) or labor union (American English) is an organization of workers that have banded together to achieve common goals such as better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members (rank and file[1] members) and negotiates labour contracts (collective bargaining) with employers. This may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. The agreements negotiated by the union leaders are binding on the rank and file members and the employer and in some cases on other non-member workers.
Originating in Europe, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution, when the lack of skill necessary to perform most jobs shifted employment bargaining power almost completely to the employers' side, causing many workers to be mistreated and underpaid. Trade union organizations may be composed of individual workers, professionals, past workers, or the unemployed. The most common, but by no means only, purpose of these organizations is "maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment".[2]
Over the last three hundred years, many trade unions have developed into a number of forms, influenced by differing political objectives. Activities of trade unions vary, but may include:
Provision of benefits to members: Early trade unions, like Friendly Societies, often provided a range of benefits to insure members against unemployment, ill health, old age and funeral expenses. In many developed countries, these functions have been assumed by the state; however, the provision of professional training, legal advice and representation for members is still an important benefit of trade union membership.
Collective bargaining: Where trade unions are able to operate openly and are recognized by employers, they may negotiate with employers over wages and working conditions.
Political activity: Trade unions may promote legislation favorable to the interests of their members or workers as a whole. To this end they may pursue campaigns, undertake lobbying, or financially support individual candidates or parties (such as the Labour Party in Britain) for public office.
An HRM strategy pertains to the means as to how to implement the specific functions of HRM. An organization's HR function may possess recruitment and selection policies, disciplinary procedures, reward/recognition policies, an HR plan, or learning and development policies, however all of these functional areas of HRM need to be aligned and correlated, in order to correspond with the overall business strategy. An HRM strategy thus is an overall plan, concerning the implementation of specific HRM functional areas.
An HRM strategy typically consists of the following factors:-
"Best fit" and "best practice" - meaning that there is correlation between the HRM strategy and the overall corporate strategy. As HRM as a field seeks to manage human resources in order to achieve properly organizational goals, an organization's HRM strategy seeks to accomplish such management by applying a firm's personnel needs with the goals/objectives of the organisation. As an example, a firm selling cars could have a corporate strategy of increasing car sales by 10% over a five year period. Accordingly, the HRM strategy would seek to facilitate how exactly to manage personnel in order to achieve the 10% figure. Specific HRM functions, such as recruitment and selection, reward/recognition, an HR plan, or learning and development policies, would be tailored to achieve the corporate objectives.
Close co-operation (at least in theory) between HR and the top/senior management, in the development of the corporate strategy. Theoretically, a senior HR representative should be present when an organization's corporate objectives are devised. This is so, since it is a firm's personnel who actually construct a good, or provide a service. The personnel's proper management is vital in the firm being successful, or even existing as a going concern. Thus, HR can be seen as one of the critical departments within the functional area of an organization.
Continual monitoring of the strategy, via employee feedback, surveys, etc.
The implementation of an HR strategy is not always required, and may depend on a number of factors, namely the size of the firm, the organizational culture within the firm or the industry that the firm operates in and also the people in the firm.
An HRM strategy can be divided, in general, into two facets - the people strategy and the HR functional strategy. The people strategy pertains to the point listed in the first paragraph, namely the careful correlation of HRM policies/actions to attain the goals laid down in the corporate strategy. The HR functional strategy relates to the policies employed within the HR functional area itself, regarding the management of persons internal to it, to ensure its own departmental goals are met.
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Managing
Human Resources,
5/E Luis Gomez-Mejia , Arizona State
University David Balkin , University of
Colorado, Boulder Robert Cardy , University of
Texas at San Antonio
ISBN-10:
013187067X
ISBN-13: 9780131870673
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The
Legal and Regulatory Environment of Business,
15/e
O. Lee Reed, University of Georgia
Peter J. Shedd, University of Georgia
Marisa Anne Pagnattaro, University of Georgia
Jere W. Morehead, University of Georgia
ISBN:
007337766x
Copyright year: 2010
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