Contents
Learning Guide
Rationale
An Organization or Organisation (read more about -ize
vs -ise) is a formal group of people with one or more shared
goals. The word itself is derived from the Greek word ὄργανον (organon) meaning tool. The term is used in both daily and scientific
English in multiple ways.
In
the social sciences, organizations are studied by researchers
from several disciplines. Most commonly in sociology, economics, political
science, psychology,
and management.
The broad area is commonly referred to as organizational
studies, organizational
behaviour or organization analysis. Therefore, a number
of different theories and perspectives exist, some of which
are compatible, and others that are competing.
- Organization
– process-related: an entity is being (re-)organized
(organization as task or action).
- Organization
– functional: organization as a function of how entities
like businesses or state authorities are used (organization
as a permanent structure).
- Organization
– institutional:
an entity is an organization (organization as an actual
purposeful structure within a social context)
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Topic
One
Readings
Organizational studies, also commonly referred to as organizational behaviour or organizational theory, encompasses the systematic study and careful application of knowledge about how people act within organizations.
Organizational culture is an idea in the field of organizational studies and management which describes the psychology, attitudes, experiences, beliefs and values (personal and cultural values) of an organization. It has been defined as "the specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization."[1]
This definition continues to explain organizational values, also called as "beliefs and ideas about what kinds of goals members of an organization should pursue and ideas about the appropriate kinds or standards of behavior organizational members should use to achieve these goals. From organizational values develop organizational norms, guidelines, or expectations that prescribe appropriate kinds of behavior by employees in particular situations and control the behavior of organizational members towards one another."[1]
Work-groups within the organization have their own behavioral quirks and interactions
which, to an extent, affect the whole system.
Task culture can be imported. That is to say, computer technicians
will have expertise, language and behaviors gained independently
of the organization that set them apart from their colleagues,
but their mere presence can influence the culture of the organization.
Senior
management may try to determine a corporate culture.
They may wish to impose corporate values and standards of
behavior that specifically reflect the objectives of the organization.
In addition, there will be an internal culture within the
workforce. |
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Organizational
culture is the specific collection of values and norms that are
shared by people and groups in an organization and that control
the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside
the organization. Organizational values are beliefs and ideas about
what kinds of goals members of an organization should pursue and
ideas about the appropriate kinds or standards of behavior organizational
members should use to achieve these goals. From organizational values
develop organizational norms, guidelines or expectations that prescribe
appropriate kinds of behavior by employees in particular situations
and control the behavior of organizational members towards one another.
(Strategic Management, Charles W. L. Hill, Gareth R. Jones, Fifth
Edition, 2001 Houghton Mifflin, MeansBusiness, Inc.)
Topic
Two
Readings
Human
Behaviour is the collection of activities performed by human
beings and influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion,
and/or coercion.
The
behavior of people (and other organisms or even mechanisms) falls within a range with some behavior being common, some unusual, some acceptable,
and some outside
acceptable limits. In sociology,
behavior is considered as having no meaning, being not directed
at other people and thus is the most basic human action.
Behavior should not be mistaken with social
behaviour, which is more advanced action, as social behavior
is behavior specifically directed at other people. The acceptability
of behavior is evaluated relative to social
norms and regulated by various means of social
control.
The
behavior of people is studied by the academic
disciplines of psychology, sociology,
and anthropology.
See
also
Topic
Three
Readings
In organizational development (OD), work design is the application of Socio-Technical Systems principles and techniques to the humanization of work.
The aims of work design to improved job satisfaction, to improved through-put, to improved quality and to reduced employee problems, e.g., grievances, absenteeism.
Stress
Management encompasses techniques
intended to equip a person with effective coping mechanisms for
dealing with psychological
stress.
Definition
of stress: Stress management defines stress precisely as
a person's physiological response to an internal or external stimulus
that triggers the "fight-or-flight"
reaction. ( Also see General
adaptation syndrome)
See
also
Topic
Four
Readings
Group
Behaviour in sociology refers to the situations where
- people
interact inside small
groups, for example to reach or not a consensus and act in a coordinated way. This is the field of group dynamics.
- large
number of people in a given area behave simultaneously in similar
way and have a similar goal, that might be different from what
they would do individually (herd
behavior).
For
example, a large group of people (crowd, mob)
is likely to show examples of group behaviour when a group
of people, gathered in a given place and time will act in
a similar way - for example, they will join a protest or a March, take place in a fight or welcome an idol.
Special
forms of large group behaviour are:
- crowd "hysteria"
- spectators - when a group of people gathered together on purpose to
participate in an event like theatre play, cinema movie, football match, a concert,
etc.
- public - exception to the rule that the group must occupy the same
physical place. People watching same channel on television
may react in the same way, as they are occupying the same
type of place - in front of TV - although they may physically
be doing this all over the world
Group
behaviour differs from mass
actions which refers to people behaving similary on a
more global scale (for example, shoppers in different shops),
while group behaviour refers usually to people in one place.
If the group behaviour is coordinated, then it is called group
action. |
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Swarm
Intelligence is a special case of group behaviour, referring
to the interaction between a group of agents in order to fulfill
a given task. This type of group dynamics has received much attention
by the Soft
Computing community in the form of the Particle
Swarm Optimization family of algorithms.
Conflict is a state of opposition, disagreement or incompatibility between
two or more people or groups of people, which is sometimes characterized
by physical violence.
Military conflict between states may constitute war.
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Negotiation is the process where interested parties resolve disputes, agree
upon courses of action, bargain for individual or collective advantage,
and/or attempt to craft outcomes which serve their mutual interests.
Negotiation is usually regarded as a form of alternative
dispute resolution. The first step in negotiation is to determine
whether the situation is in fact a negotiation. The essential qualities
of negotiation are: the existence of two parties who share an important
objective but have some significant difference(s). The purpose of
the negotiating conference to seek to compromise the difference(s).
The outcome of the negotiating conference may be a compromise satisfactory
to both sides, a standoff (failure to reach a satisfactory compromise)
or a standoff with an agreement to try again at a later time. Negotiation
differs from "influencing" and "group decision making." See diagram.
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- External
links
- Negotiation
Training Karrass' advertisements,
seen commonly in most airline magazines is the world leader
in negotiation training, having trained nearly one million
business professionals around the world*
Harvard
Program on Negotiation (PON) One of the world's leading
centers for the study and training of negotiations and base
for some of the field's best-known scholars of negotiation
such as Roger
Fisher.
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Power,
Organisations
and Management |
Political
Language and Organisational Life
Metaphors
relating to power weave through our work conversations and
organisational experience. Our understandings of power and
power relationships are brought to life and maintained through
language. When we talk and argue we initiate, maintain, justify
and reinforce structures of organisational membership, acceptance
and decision-making.
Classical administrative theory portrays organisations as
logical,
functional, bland, impersonal, passionless entities that operate
according to neutral rules of efficiency and economy.
But organisations are social constructions characterised by
ownership, membership, control and language. Social power
is manifested through the exertion and ability of members
and other stakeholders as they generate and maintain their
position and relationships. These matters are human and illustrate
- human
frailty
- skill,
ability, learning capacity
- opportunism
and willingness to engage
- control
over passions and self-centredness or altruism and virtue
- ingenuity
and disingenuousness
One
definition of social power is that offered by Dahl: "the
ability to get another person to do something that he or she
would not otherwise have done."
The
weakness in the social construction/language argument relating
to power is that it neglects pure, real, coercive force.
The fist speaks louder than words. The person who does not
speak but who acts - using the gun, the sword, the fist -
to force others into submission - has power. This is the first
source of power. In the modern business word - coercion
- albeit mediated by social mores and the law - is nevertheless
still evident. The employee may be dismissed, the union may
strike. |
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Positioning
and influencing (politics) are structurally and processually inherent
in organisations. Authoritarianism, self-interest, pluralism and
coalitions prevail. Through consultation and manoeuvering (politicking),
individuals and groups balance their views and preferences. Organisational
life is predominantly governmental and political. Participants agree
and disagree about purposes, goals and methods. It was the ancient
Greeks however who first drew to our attention how political processes
may order, stablise and mediate absolutist, coercive and volatile
tendencies in government. Machiavelli - similarly offered insights and recommendations about the behaviour
of princes in comparison to ordinary citizens.
Metaphors
and the way we refer to Power
A
metaphor is a figure of speech in which a name or descriptive
term is transferred to some object to which it is not literally applicable.
Metaphors such as "we are all in the same boat together" decorate
the scripts of business; HRM, TQM and the "be excellent" school.
We talk of
- "the
bottom-line"
- "re-engineering"
- "checks
and balances"
- "closet
management"
- "clinching
the deal"
- "dead-dogs
and cash-cows"
Our use of metaphor in the way we speak indicates imperatives, rights,
positions, expectations, manoeuvring and inclusion/exclusion processes.
This echoes along organisational and political corridors. The cliche
"our most valuable asset is our people" is commonly heard. Indeed
humanistic ideals about organisational culture, leadership styles,
team building, motivation and performance feature widely in modern
business-speak.
Such speech is not neutral, it carries political connotations. It
tends to impart necessity, urgency and acceptability to actions
and it flavours the scripts of the powerful who
- distribute
patronage and devolve authority
- define
imperatives and take action
- mobilise
the support of others
Organisational
behaviour textbooks generally under-play the first two of these
points and the drama of politicking. This is why a power perspective,
how people in organisations engage in politics, will better our
understanding of organisational life and reduce our human relations
nievity. We should not gloss over the contradictions of owner/manager
dominance. Nor should we label "politicking" as abnormal or dysfunctional
behaviour - it could not be more normal.
Sources
of Power
In
modern organisational life, various sources of power sources are used
to get others to do something they otherwise would not have done.
When analysing events and influences it is important to consider how
people - over time - may construe their situation differently.
Different power sources may be more or less highly regarded in history
and according to the predispositions of the observer. The expectations,
values and language of Year 2000 incorporates words and phrases
that focus attention on matters we regard as important today. If
we lived in 1800, our expectations, values and language may result
in different interpretations about what we regard as good, immoral,
true. We will see principles, needs, trends, opportunities and threats
differently.
The person who speaks fluently is empowered and may also empower
others to create, direct and dominate organisational relationships.
A study of language and iconic words and phrases of the time may
better explain managerial behaviour than shallow propositions about
team leadership and management styles.
Other
sources of power
- Property
ownership and institutionalised law. "Its my business, I own
it, I make the decisions ".
- Personality
and skill in building influence and reputation.
- Family
interest and traditions can affect the family-owned business.
- Company,
charity, club and trade union activities can be controlled by
interest groups who manoeuvre for position.
- In
democracies
power to rule (Greek - Kratia- cracy) rests with the people (demos)
and exercised through e.g. participative representation, co-determination or coalition.
- In
an autocracy
- an individual or small group - through force and ability to
reward followers - holds the power to govern, control and own
resources. They define the rights, privileges and rules of behaviour
. Through patronage they can distribute limited power/privilege
to others.
- In
a bureaucracy
- control is achieved via " rationally " defined, accepted procedures
and regulations which guide activity ( " the rule of law "). As Berger points
out, those who know and can use the rules can control decisions
and action.
- In
a technology driven organisation
experts and problem-solvers acquire power and influence according
to the "know-how" they contribute.
- With
co-determination
groups collaborate to manage shared interests jointly via a coalition.
The aspects of
the Social Chapter (Maastricht) and visions of a stakeholder society are examples of corporatist principles. The cases of worker
co-operatives and management buy-outs. can also be considered.
In his book "Images of Organisations" Gareth Morgan presents a thorough
analysis of metaphors, devices and power-plays. It broadens and deepens
our understanding of power in organisations. The book is essential
reading for any student of organisational behaviour and is highly
recommended for purchase.
Morgan's framework of analysis almost offers itself as a DIY guide
- a curriculum - for a management training course entitled "Teach
Yourself to Become a Power-Player". He clearly does not intend this
- however - trainee power-players have much to learn from the substance
and themes illustrated by the metaphors. Morgan's sources of power
may be listed as follows:
Topic
Five
The
word Leadership can refer to:
- the
process of leading
- the
concept of leading
- those
entities that perform one or more acts of leading.
The
various meanings can lead to some confusion.
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Critical
Issues in Leadership
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Topic
Six
Readings
Communication is the process of sharing information. In a simplistic form information
is sent from a sender or encoder to a receiver or decoder. In a
more complex form feedback links a sender to a receiver. This requires
a symbolic activity, sometimes via a language.
Specialised fields focus on various aspects of communication, and
include
Communication
as a named and unified discipline has a history of contestation
that goes back to the Socratic
dialogues, in many ways making it the first and most contestatory
of all early sciences and philosophies. Seeking to define "communication"
as a static word or unified discipline may not be as important as
understanding communication as a family of resemblances with a plurality
of definitions as Ludwig
Wittgenstein had put forth. Some definitions are broad, recognizing
that animals can communicate, and some are more narrow, only including
human beings within the parameters of human symbolic interaction..
Nonetheless,
communication is usually described along three major dimensions:
- content,
- form,
and
- destination.
With
the presence of "communication
noise" these three components of communication often become
skewed and inaccurate. Between parties, communication content include
acts that declare knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands,
and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, including gestures (nonverbal
communication, sign
language and body
language), writing,
or verbal speaking.
The form depends on the symbol systems used. Together, communication
content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself,
another person (in interpersonal
communication), or another entity (such as a corporation or
group).
There
are many theories
of communication, and a commonly held assumption is that communication
must be directed towards another person or entity. This essentially
ignores intrapersonal
communication (note intra-, not inter-) via diaries
or self-talk.
| Interpersonal conversation can occur in dyads and groups of various sizes, and the size
of the group impacts the nature of the talk. Small-group
communication takes place in settings of between three and
12 individuals, and differs from large
group interaction in companies or communities. This form
of communication formed by a dyad and larger is sometimes referred
to as the psychological model of communication where in a message
is sent by a sender through channel to a receiver. At the largest
level, mass
communication describes messages sent to huge numbers of
individuals through mass
media, although there is debate if this is an interpersonal conversation. |
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Decision
Making is the cognitive
process leading to the selection of a course of action among alternatives.
Every decision making process produces a final choice called a decision.
It can be an action or an opinion. It begins when we need to do
something but we do not know what. Therefore, decision-making is
a reasoning process which can be rational or irrational, and can
be based on explicit assumptions or tacit
assumptions.
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Common
examples include shopping,
deciding what to eat,
when to sleep,
and deciding whom or what to vote for in an election or referendum.
Decision
making is said to be a psychological construct. This means
that although we can never "see" a decision, we can infer
from observable behaviour that a decision has been made. Therefore,
we conclude that a psychological event that we call "decision
making" has occurred. It is a construction that imputes commitment
to action. That is, based on observable actions, we assume
that people have made a commitment to affect the action.
Structured
rational decision making is an important part of all science-based
professions, where specialists apply their knowledge in a given area to making informed decisions. For example, medical decision making often involves making a diagnosis and selecting an appropriate treatment. |
Some
research using naturalistic
methods shows, however, that in situations with higher time
pressure, higher stakes, or increased ambiguities, experts use intuitive
decision making rather than structured approaches, following a recognition
primed decision approach to fit a set of indicators into the
expert's experience and immediately arrive at a satisfactory course
of action without weighing alternatives.
Due
to the large number of considerations involved in many decisions,
computer-based decision
support systems have been developed to assist decision makers
in considering the implications of various courses of thinking.
They can help reduce the risk of human errors.
The systems which try to realize some human/cognitive decision making
functions are called Intelligent Decision Support Systems (IDSS),
see for ex. "An
Approach to the Intelligent Decision Advisor (IDA) for Emergency
Managers, 1999".
- Decision
making style
- Cognitive
and personal biases in decision making
- Cognitive
neuroscience of decision making
- Decision
making in groups
- Decision
making in one's personal life
- Decision
making in healthcare
- Path
dependency
- Decision
making in business and management
- Decision-makers
and influencers
- References
- See
also
- External
links
- Sources
of Power: How people make decisions,
-Klein,
G. (1998), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
- Society
for Medical Decision Making
- How
to make better decisions
- Emotional
and Decision Making Lab, Carnegie Mellon, EDM
Lab
- High-Intelligence
& Decision Research Group, -
the Italian Research Agency ENEA
- General
Morphological Analysis: A General Method for Non-Quantified
Modelling From the Swedish
Morphological Society
- Strategic
Decision Support using Computerised Morphological Analysis
- Myers,
I. (1962) Introduction to Type: A description of the
theory and applications of the Myers-Briggs type indicator,
Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto Ca., 1962.
- The
de Borda Institute - Emerson, P J. Beyond the Tyranny
of the Majority, a comparison of the more common voting
procedures used in both decision-making and elections.
- Intelligent
Decision Support Systems- Pages of Adam Maria Gadomski
- Some
important research journals
Topic
Seven
Readings
Organizational
Structure is the way in which the interrelated groups of
an organization are constructed. From a managerial point of view the main concerns
are ensuring effective communication and coordination.
In organizational
development (OD), specialists assist their clients in recognizing
that "the only constant is change" and in acknowledging the critical
role of Managing
Change.
Organizational
development (OD) practitioners help organizations to manage change
in various ways including:
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- assessing
the need for change
- designing
the plan for change
- coaching
those who will lead others through the transition to change
- helping
others adapt to change
- dealing
with resistance
to change
Related
Concepts
|
The
classic definitions of Innovation include:
- the
process of making improvements by introducing something new
- the
act of introducing something new: something newly introduced (The American Heritage Dictionary).
- the
introduction of something new. (Merriam-Webster Online)
- a
new idea, method or device. (Merriam-Webster Online)
- the
successful exploitation of new ideas (Dept of Trade and Industry,
UK).
- change
that creates a new dimension of performance Peter
Drucker (Hesselbein, 2002)
In
economics, business and government policy,- something new - must
be substantially different, not an insignificant change. In economics
the change must increase value, customer value, or producer value.
Innovations are intended to make someone better off, and the succession
of many innovations grows the whole economy.
The
term innovation may refer to both radical or incremental changes
to products, processes or services. The often unspoken goal of innovation
is to solve a problem. Innovation is an important topic in the study
of economics, business, technology, sociology,
and engineering.
Since innovation is also considered a major driver of the economy,
the factors that lead to innovation are also considered to be critical
to policy makers.
In
the organisational context, innovation may be linked to performance
and growth through improvements in efficiency, productivity, quality,
competitive positioning, market share, etc. All organisations can
innovate, including for example hospitals, universities, and local
governments.
While
innovation typically adds value, innovation may also have a negative
or destructive effect as new developments clear away or change old
organizational forms and practices. Organisations that do not innovate
effectively may be destroyed by those that do.
Recommended
Texts
 |
Organisational
Behaviour and Management 7/e
John
M. Ivancevich, University of Houston
Robert Konopaske, University of North Carolina-Wilmington
Michael T. Matteson, Houston
ISBN: 007287516x
Copyright year: 2005
Check
the availability and buy your books from our Bookshop.
|
 |
Organisational
Behaviour and Management 5/e Ivancevich and Matteson
With
Organisational Behaviour and Management, students become involved
participants in learning about behaviour and management within
work settings. The book is designed with instructional flexibility
in mind. OBM combines text, readings, self-learning exercises,
group participation exercises, and cases. These elements are
aimed at students interested in understanding, interpreting,
and attempting to predict the behaviour of people working
in organisations. |
Resources
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